The Indian Independence movement

The first step toward Indian independence and western-style democracy was taken with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy, and with the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members; the councillors' participation was subsequently widened in legislative councils. From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj, using largely peaceful methods. Some other revolutionaries adopted militant approach; revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The profound impact Gandhi had on India and his ability to gain independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made him one of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. He led by example, wearing a minimum of homespun clothes to weaken the British textile industry and orchestrating a march to the sea, where demonstrators proceeded to make their own salt in protest against the British monopoly. Indians gave him the name Mahatma, or Great Soul, first suggested by the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. Subash Chandra Bose, a great freedom fighter, had organised a formidable army to fight against the British rule. Bhagat Singh was another Indian freedom fighter, considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement; he is often referred to as Shaheed Bhagat Singh (the word shaheed means "martyr"). Veerapandiya Kattabomman was also another freedom fighter who started his freedom movement against British rule by refusing to pay tax to British Government. These movements succeeded in bringing Independence to the Indian sub-continent in 1947. One year later, Gandhi was assassinated. However, he did live long enough to free his homeland and thus recognised as father of nation.

The British Raj

span style="font-weight:bold;">The British East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India. Gradually their increasing influence led the de-jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in 1717. The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the 'army' of East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. This was the first political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the Company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757. This was combined with British victories over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondicherry that, along with wider British successes during the Seven Years War, reduced French influence in India. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; it marked the beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf eventually most of India and extinguish the Moghul rule and dynasty itself in a century. The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal-like structure (See Zamindar) in Bengal. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.
The first major movement against the British Company's high handed rule resulted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy Mutiny" or the "First War of Independence". After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the East India Company's troops with British soldiers, the Company overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma, his children were beheaded and the Moghul line abolished. In the aftermath all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a colony; the Company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through the rulers of what it called the Princely states. There were 565 princely states when the Indian subcontinent gained independence from Britain in August 1947.
During the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876–78, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died and the Indian famine of 1899–1900, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died. The Third Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. Despite persistent diseases and famines, however, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.

Colonial era

Vasco da Gama's maritime success to discover for Europeans a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the British—who set up a trading-post in the west-coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers were to control various regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they would eventually lose all their territories in India to the British islanders, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman, and Diu.

Post-Mughal Regional Kingdoms

The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerainty as other small regional states (mostly post-Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). The Maratha Kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the Peshwas. By 1760, the Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an Afghan army led by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded around 1400 CE by the Wodeyar dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan. Under their rule Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the British with some aid or promise of aid from the French. Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad declaring himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British India.
The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that governed the region of modern day Punjab. This was among the last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The Anglo-Sikh wars marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire. Around the 18th century modern Nepal was formed by Gorkha rulers, and the Shahs and the Ranas very strictly maintained their national identity and integrity.

In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for over 200 years.[54] The Mughal Dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the 1857 War of Independence also called the Indian Rebellion of 1857. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors; most of them showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance and as a result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak occupied an area similar to the ancient Maurya Empire, several smaller empires rose to fill the power vacuum or themselves were contributing factors to the decline. The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. In 1739, Nader Shah defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.[55]
During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including the Maratha confederacy - who fought an increasingly weak and disfavoured Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the Jazia Tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local Maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in their downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population, that often inflamed the majority Hindu population.

Delhi Sultanate

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turkics and Pashtuns invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century, in the former Rajput holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximate to the ancient extent of the Guptas, while the Khilji Empire was also able to conquer most of central India, but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting most of the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the inter-mingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic Prakrits with the Persian, Turkic and Arabic speaking immigrants under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to stake a claim to enthroning one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultan (1236-1240).
A Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.[ The Sultan's army was defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed and left in ruins; his army fell killing and plundering for three days and nights. He ordered except for the Sayyids, the scholars, and the other Mussulmans, the whole city to be sacked; 100,000 war prisoners, mostly Hindus, were put to death in one day.

The Islamic Sultanates

After conquering Persia, Islamic Caliphate incorporated parts of what is now Pakistan around 720 CE. They were keen to invade India[49], which was the richest classical civilization[50], with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world. After several wars over three centuries between various north Indian kingdoms and the Caliphate, short lived Islamic empires (Sultanates) were established and spread across the northern subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. But, prior to Turkic invasions, Muslim trading communities had flourished throughout coastal South India, particularly in Kerala, where they arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula, through trade links via the Indian Ocean. However, this had marked the introduction of an Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion in Southern India's pre-existing Indian religions, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates flourished in the south.

Late Middle Kingdoms — The Classical Age

The classical age in India began with the Guptas and the resurgence of the north during Harsha's conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire in the South, due to pressure from the invaders to the north in the 13th century. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death.
From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan. The Sena Empire would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the Rajputs, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. One Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic Sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-seventh century to the early eleventh century.
The Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 from Badami, Karnataka and again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani, Karnataka. The Pallavas of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiya of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century.
The Chola Empire at its peak covered much of the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular South India and parts of the Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola's navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now Myanmar) to Vietnam,[46] the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Sumatra, Java, Malaya in South East Asia and Pegu islands. Later during the middle period, the Pandyan Empire emerged in Tamil Nadu, as well as the Chera Empire in Kerala. By 1343, all these dynasties had ceased to exist giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire.
The ports of South India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.[47][48] Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and the clashing of the two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates who had managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of Delhi by that time.

Gupta Rule

The Classical Age refers to the period when much of the Indian Subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (ca. 320 AD–550 AD)[34][35]. This period is called the Golden Age of India[36] and was marked by extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture[37]. The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period[38]. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.[39]
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architectures, sculptures and paintings[40]. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields[41]. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Malay Archipelago and Indochina.
The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers—Chandragupta I (ca. 319–335), Samudragupta (ca. 335–376), and Chandragupta II (ca. 376–415) —brought much of India under their leadership.[42] They successfully resisted the North-Western Kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at Bamiyan[43]. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north.[44][45]

Roman trade with India

Roman trade with India started around 1 AD following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West.
The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BC kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12.[32]), by the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:
"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?"

Northwestern hybrid cultures

The north-western hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the region in 180 BC, extended over various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, it was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Scythians was a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from southern Siberia first into Bactria, subsequently into Sogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, Gandhara and finally into India; their kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BC to the 1st century BC. Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as Pahlavas) came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanid empire of Persia, who were contemporaries of the Guptas, expanded into the region of present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and Persian cultures gave birth to the Indo-Sassanid culture.

Early Middle Kingdoms — The Golden Age

The middle period was a time of notable cultural development. The Satavahanas, also known as the Andhras, was a dynasty which ruled in southern and central India starting from around 230 BC. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga Empire of North India. Kharavela was the warrior king of Kalinga[30] and was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian Subcontinent.[31] The Kharavelan Jain empire had a formidable maritime empire with trading routes linking it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra and Java. Colonists from Kalinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and Malay Archipelago. Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BC to roughly the 3rd century CE. The Kushanas migrated into north-western India in the middle of the 1st century CE, from Central Asia, and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Tajikistan to the middle Ganges. The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors of the Indo-Scythians (see below) and contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in central and southern India.
Different empires such as the Pandyans, Cholas, Cheras, Kadambas, Western Gangas, Pallavas and Chalukyas dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula, at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched across South East Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and Deccan states, for domination of the south. Kalabhras, a Buddhist kingdom, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the South.

Maurya Period

The Maurya Empire (322–185 B.C), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was geographically extensive, powerful, and a political military empire in ancient India. The great Maurya empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya and this empire was flourished by Ashoka the Great. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a big portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which was won by Ashoka the Great. Ashoka propagated Buddhism across the world and established many Buddhist monuments.
Chandragupta's minister Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion produced in Asia. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary sources of written records of the Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, is the national emblem of India.

Persian and Greek conquests

Much of the northwestern subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. 520 BCE during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two centuries thereafter.[28] In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There, he defeated King Puru in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.[29] Alexander's march East put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return.
The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political systems of the Persians was to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.

Maha Janapadas

In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas — Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja — stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization.

Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the dialects of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Siddhartha Gautama. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha.[25]
Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class. It is thought that the Upanishads, late Vedic texts dealing mainly with incipient philosophy, were composed in the later Vedic Age and early in this period of the Mahajanapadas (from about 600 - 400 BCE). Upanishads had a substantial effect on Indian philosophy, and were contemporary to the development of Buddhism and Jainism, indicating a golden age of thought in this period.
It is believed that in 537 BCE, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of "enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha' - the enlightened one. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara according to Jains) propagated a similar theology, that was to later become Jainism.[26] However, Jain orthodoxy believes it predates all known time. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Jain Tirthankars, and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement.[27]
The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism, and were preached in Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses. They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual orders are associated with namely, vegetarianism, prohibition of animal slaughter and ahimsa (non-violence). While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited to India, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to Central Asia, East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East Asia.

Vedic period

The Vedic period is characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the texts of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. The Aryas established Vedic civilization all over North India, and increasingly so in the Gangetic Plain. This period succeeded the prehistoric Late Harappan during which immigrations of Indo-Aryan speaking tribes overlaid the existing civilizations of local people whom they called Dasyus.
Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan urbanization having been abandoned.[21] After the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural, and was socially organized around the four Varnas. In addition to the principal texts of Hinduism the Vedas, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.[22] Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the presence of Ochre Coloured Pottery in archaeological findings.[23]
The kingdom of the Kurus[24] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India, around 1000 BCE with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as śyāma ayas, literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture spanning much of Northern India was prevalent from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[23] The Vedic Period also established republics (such as Vaishali) which existed as early as the sixth century BCE and persisted in some areas until the fourth century CE. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the prevalent tribal system towards establishment of kingdoms, called Maha Janapadas.

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,[9] the Ganges-Yamuna Doab,[15] Gujarat,[16] and southeastern Afghanistan.[17] The people of the Indus Valley are believed to have been by some as Dravidians, mainly the population of today's Southern India.[18][19]
The civilization is primarily located in modern day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.[20] Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin.
The civilization flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. The ancient civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Lothal in modern day India and Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage system and multi-storied houses.

Stone Age

Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in Central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years ago.[3][4] Recent finds in Tamil Nadu (at c. 75,000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba volcano) indicate the presence of the first anatomically modern humans in the area.
The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent covered a timespan of around 25,000 years, starting around 30,000 years ago. More extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age, or approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh, India.
Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards) in present day Balochistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE.[5] The Edakkal Caves has one of the earliest examples of stone age writing. Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000 and 2000 BCE and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 BCE.
Tools crafted by proto-humans have been discovered in the north-western part of the subcontinent that have been dated back two million years.[6][7] The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements[8] and some of its major civilizations.[9][10] The earliest archaeological site in the Subcontinent is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.[11] Village life began with the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh,[12] while the first urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilization.[13][14]

History of India

The history of India begins with human settlement that has been confirmed to over 9000 years ago in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. However, evidence of human activity shows the presence of Homo sapiens as long as 75,000 years ago and hominids from about 500,000 years ago. The Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE, was the first major civilization in India. Its Mature Harappan period lasted from 2600-1900 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilization, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born in the 6th century BCE, who propagated their Shramanic philosophies among the masses.
The whole subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. It subsequently became fragmented, with various parts ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next 1,500 years. This is known as the classical period of India, during which India is estimated to have had the largest economy of the ancient and medieval world controlling between one third and one fourth of the world's wealth up to the 18th century.
Much of India was once again united in the 4th century CE, and remained so for two centuries thereafter, under the Gupta Empire. This period, of Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known among its admirers as the "Golden Age of India." During the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, Southern India, under the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, experienced its own golden age, during which Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia.
The southern state of Kerala had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around 77 CE. Islam was introduced in Kerala through this route by Muslim traders. Muslim rule in the subcontinent began in 712 CE when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab,[1] setting the stage for several successive invasions between the 10th and 15th centuries CE from Central Asia, leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent such as the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire.
Mughal rule came to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced middle-eastern art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals and various Rajput kingdoms, several independent Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Maratha Empire and the Ahom Kingdom, flourished contemporaneously in Southern, Western and North-Eastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early eighteenth century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis and Sikhs to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of the subcontinent until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia.[2]
Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was gradually annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the First War of Indian Independence, after which India was directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan.

DR. DO-DIDDILY AND THE DEE-DOT'S DIMDIMA As you all know, Diddilydeedot, Seligor and Dodie all love to keep our Indian friends happy, whilst they are living away from their country of their ancestors. Today I visited the Dimdima Magazine on line by going through my own link to have a look and make sure the link was still working fine. Which it is, but whilst there I collected a little of the children's work and though you might like to see the wonderful places you can go to through the DIMDIMA PAGE. Maybe you could send some of your own stories, paintings and poems to the editor at DIMDIMA. First a story from * * * Summer is Here * * * by Samruddhi Pathak Jabalpur It is summer time in India now. Temperatures are soaring and everybody is trying different things to save themselves from the scorching heat. Nevertheless, summers are not that unwelcome as it seems. Children especially wait for summers because they have vacations. They can play a lot and eat ice creams. Fathers bring big green watermelons and varieties of mangoes whilereturning home from their workplaces. Mothers and grandmothers make pickles, jams, jellies and marmalades. Children enjoy homemade drinks, sherbets, mom-made Rasna and Milk Shakes. Some even enjoy aerated drinks though they are aware of their ill effects. Cousins visit each other and (except some scolding from mothers for playing in the sun and drinking water thereafter) it's fun time, in general. However, do not think that only you are enjoying the summer! I mean only we humans do not enjoy summer . This rosy picture of a typical summer time in India gets marred when by chance our eyes see a reptile – a chameleon , lizard, iguana or a mighty snake(who comes out in the evening to have an “evening walk” ). Instantly we scream, run for life and call others. Depending on the distance between them and us, we react. The reactions of women especially are worth noting. They scream loudly. Some go dumb and numb. If the lizard is in thekitchen, the chances of food being cooked are directly proportional to the distance between the cooking platform and the lizard. If the lizard is in the bathroom, the taps enjoy a holiday and if it is in the toilet ! … The acrobatics of snakes needs a mention too. They occupy vehicles’ silencers, rods of windows, branches of trees and climbers, old pipes and comparatively cooler surfaces. They generally come out in the evening. Children should avoid going in thick bushes to pick up a ball. The iguanas are not as conspicuous as the snakes or lizards but they are dangerous because they are very powerful. They have a great grasping ability and a single human cannot deal with them. Killing them is not easy and not a good step too. Experts from forest departmentsshould be called immediately and a watch should be kept on them because they do move very fast and feign inactivity . But they may be fooling us. Except such interruptions, the summer is for enjoyment. The chilled lassi’,’malai kulfi’ and sugar cane juice are waiting for you. Enjoy it fully and make your summer memorable. I find your story really nice Samruddhi, I am not sure how old you were when you wrote it. You have brought over with your writing, pictures that the eyes can see, I wonder what you were playing though and what flavour was your ice-cream? I do realise that the story is only meant to be short, but as someone who has never been too India, I found there was a lot of things I didn't know about. A beautiful story though, I hope you write many more. By Sharada Mahalingam Age : 12 Class: Seventh School: J.B Vachha High School City: Mumbai The Rambo Circus is in town!” I exclaimed, eagerly scanning the day’s newspaper. “Let’s go today, please, Mummy?” Mummy looked at Daddy, who smiled. “All right, I suppose we could get tickets for the six ‘o’ clock show this evening,” she said sipping her coffee. It was a Friday morning and my parents, my twin sister Tina and I were eating breakfast. “Now eat quickly, or you’ll be late for school,” said Daddy. At school we could think about nothing but the circus, and as soon as we got home, we changed, had our snacks and waited impatiently for Daddy to get home from his office. “He’d said he’d come early today,” complained Tina to Mummy. Just then, we heard a squeal of tires and our blue family van appeared on the driveway, driven by Daddy. We filed inside the van and where off to the circus. We were fortunate to get four seats in the front row - then the show began. The first to take the stage was a famous Russian acrobats team, they performed on the high-wire. They were amazing. Next a dwarf rode on a tri-cycle, he was marvellous. We clapped loudly as he rode his tri-cycle over the tall grey elephants. Suddenly the circus ring was filled with the sound of two motor cyclists who drove their motor bikes inside a huge transparent globe. The noise they made was deafening! After that, a pretty lady came onto the stage, followed by a lion. She fearlessly put her whole head into the lion’s open mouth! We were terrified, but how the audience applauded! We had just settled down again, when a magnificent, black horse, with a young gymnast sitting on its back came onto the stage. Slowly he stood up on the horse's back, first he cantered about on the stage, then he did push-ups and even a few flip-flops! Then the lights came on, it was the interval. Daddy let us buy popcorn and ice cream, and we talked about the various items that were performed. Then it was time for the second half . The scenery had changed and there were rope ladders hanging everywhere and across the very top was a huge net. Then the clowns came in , a short clown with a big red nose and curly hair, whilst the taller one had a hat and long, toed, shoes. They made their way to the ladders and the little one started climbing, followed closely by the tall one on the same ladder just a few steps behind! Just then, the little clowns shorts slipped off his legs and fell onto the stage. But that wasn't enough, moments later his underwear fell after his shorts, but this time they landed over the head of the tall clown! It was really very funny, watching him wobbling about on the rope ladder, Tina was crying with laughter! Then the lights dimmed and in came a juggler, he was carrying burning torches. He began to juggle them, first one, then two, then three. I felt scared, I mean, "what if he drops one of those torches of fire?” I jumped as Tina got up from her seat to go to the toilet Then suddenly - before I knew what was happening - I saw that the stage was on fire! Everyone was screaming, everywhere rushing to the fire exit . “Hold on tight to my hand!” screamed Mummy, clutching Daddy’s arm, we were practically carried by the crowd to the exit. Suddenly Daddy shouted, “Where is Tina?” Just then, we saw my sister come out of the rest room, a look of surprise on her face. "Tina, Tina," I shouted waving at her frantically and at last she spotted us and came running over! There was no time to explain we just kept hold of Mummy as Daddy led us to safety. At last, we reached home safe and sound. The following day we read all about it in the news-paper, Luckily the juggler had escaped with minor injuries and no one else seemed to have been hurt or killed, thank goodness. My only regret was we never saw the end of the show. But Tina didn’t mind that, "she was more angry that she was out of the room and missed all the excitement!” she grumbled. Such an adventure, who could have known that a simple visit to the circus , would have such an extraordinary ending?! Dear Sharada What a wonderful story, was it a true adventure or did you make it up. I hope you wont be upset but as you are/were only 12 when you wrote it, I have took the liberty of altering it a little bit. This doesn't mean I didn't think your story was good, not at all, the ideas are fantastic and with a little tweak here, and a little tweak there, adding a few more words that created the scene on the stage into your mind, is something you learn with time. I am 65, and even now when writing my big books, I still have to get someone to see if they can be made better. Never be afraid to ask your teacher for help when you are writing and always read back over what you have written, mainly, to make sure you don't repeat the same words over and over again. I hope you will not mind my help and I hope to see some more of your work.. I receive the Dimdima every month and do enjoy reading the children's pages. Bye, bye Seligor I couldn't go without putting this one poem on by Grace. And with Halloween soon coming up I thought it was very, very good, and I will enclose it in my special Halloween night page both on Diddilydeedot's Dreamland and Seligor's Castle. Midnight Horror A strange cold shiver Down my spine The long white thing Supposing a ghost Lurking in the shadows Waiting to pounce On a girl like me! It’s Friday Midnight on Friday the 13th The day of ghosts, Of ghouls and owls Cackling witches on their broom Laughing, screaming Fills the air Giving it a spooky stage. Robbers and thieves on the prowl Making plans to hurt people Dacoits too join their gang Poachers too included there Trouble’s brewing all around In houses, yours or mine. Suddenly! POOF! The shivers gone A clock goes off and I wake up. This was one of weirdest dreams One I’m sure I’ll never forget! Grace Verghese VIII C Bhavans, Chevayur , Calicut *HUGS* TOTAL! give Seligor more *HUGS* Get hugs of your own DISCLAIMER Disclaimer: This website contains materials authored by me and also partly a collection of items from the internet. The collections are, I believe, in the Public Domain. In case any material, inadvertently put up, which has acopyright please do write to me and it will be removed. The compilations are for entertainment purposes only and have not been compiled for educational or historical purposes. dottido@hotmail.co.uk

DR. DO-DIDDILY AND THE DEE-DOT'S Holi with Bloodshed The invitation said, 'Hope your thirst for battle has been quenched. Springtime has come. Come with your courtiers to play Holi with the Rajputani'... by Dina Nath Dubey Perched on the bank of the river Chambal, Kota was once ruled by the rulers of Malwa, Kesar Khan and Dokar Khan. But it was rather their misfortune, which drew them to Kota, where they were buried near the big tank, with the beautiful Jag Mandir at its bank. The end of these rulers came in a sensational way on the occasion of Holi, when people play with colours. But it was not colour, in their case, it was blood. As per tale about seven hundred years ago, Kota was seized by the two pathans Dokar Khan and Kesar Khan. Bhongasi, its ruler was incapacitated with the excessive use of wine and opium and was banished to Bundi. His wife, with his household vassals and sixty villagers retired to Kaithun. Bhongasi, while in exile, repented his excesses and returned to his wife and kins. The intrepid Rajputani, rejoiced at his return and laid a plan for the recovery of Kota. To attempt it, by force, would have been an open invitation to destruction. When spring came the queen planned to organize Holi and invited the Pathans who jumped at the invitation and eagerly awaited the moment when they would be with the queen. One fine evening, Kesar Khan and Dokar Khan found themselves in a romantic mood. They were in their Palace of Kota, which is known asGarh. In this sylvian setting with Chambal streaming nearby, their courtiers and attendants sat by their sides silently. All of a sudden, Ibrahim, one of the commander broke the silence and said that the queen of Kaithun was preparing some plants to dethrone them. Kesar Khan guffawed and mocked the commander, "What can the queen do, with her husband an opium addict? They will never dare to challenge us". Dokar Khan, his brother, was in a light mood. He changed the power of beauty. In fact, she is the loveliest among the lovely, a charming queen..." Kesar Khan smiled and expressed his desire to have the queen in his palace. He wanted his soldiers to attack Kaithun then and there, because king Bhongasi and his queen lived there. But it was the days of Holi festival. Hence, Ibrahim said that the plan to capture the queen can materialise only after the Holi. Kesar Khan accepted the advice and waited. The dethroned king Bhongasi and his queen, Rani Roopmati was living at Kaithun, nine kilometer from Kota, in seclusion and in sadness. The queen was not so much unhappy over the defeat suffered at the hands of the Pathans; as she was because of her husband's addiction to opium. Holi was drawing near, and she was reminded of the great event of history when queen Padmini got her husband freed from the clutches of Allaudin Khilaji. A plan takes root in her mind. She gave a broad smile and ordered her maidservant to call Ratan Singh. Ratan Singh was the Commander-in-Chief. The queen discussed the plan with Ratan Singh, he nodded and went to put into action the queen's plan. Ratan Singh sent an invitation to Kesar Khan and Dokar Khan to come to Kaithun to play Holi with the queen and her maidservants. The invitation said, "Hope your thirst for battle has been quenched. Springtime has come. Come with your courtiers to play Holi with the Rajputani". The invitation from the queen put Kesar Khan in a state of joy. The message was delivered to Dokar Khan as well. Kesar Khan was lost in dreams about the queen. He gave up the idea of waging another battle with the defeated king and accepted the invitation, nourishing the hope that he would have the occasion to oblige the queen. Ibrahim, however, warmed him that there could be a trap behind the invitation. But Kesar Khan ignored the advice of his trusted commander. The messenger was sent back with the acceptance of the invitation. Kesar Khan ordered the best of clothes for himself and his courtiers. He was impatient for the moment when he would be playing the colourful Holi with the queen Roopmati and her beautiful maids. In Kaithun the garden was decorated in style. Three hundred young and pretty maids clad incolourful garments awaited to give a befitting welcome. They did not have to wait for long. Kesar Khan, turbans on their heads. The atmosphere was surcharged with romance. It put Kesar Khan and his comrades into a state of joy. Kesar Khan had waged many battles. He was now tired. It was a rare occasion offered to him for romance and revelry. He entered the palace garden and greeted the queen. The queen was waiting along with her maids with plates full of colour powders in their hands. The fountains sprang to their full height. The flowers were blooming, the air was scented with music all over. Kesar Khan approached the queen. In his impatience he expressed his feeling towards her and the queen responded in the same way and she threw colour powder (Abir) on Kesar Khan. This was a signal, for her companions who were disguised young men as ladies. They were a band of 300 selected Rajputs belonging to the Hada Dynasty. They threw away their disguises and drew out the swords hidden under their petticoats and losing no time attacked the pathans. Kesar Khan was taken by surprise. Not only was he killed on the spot, his warriors too met the same fate. Holi was now converted into a blood bath. Kesar Khan and Dokar Khan along with their courtiers all lost their lives. Kota was now restored to the king and the queen. Back in Kota, the people gave a colourful welcome o their king and queen, for freeing them from the tyranny of the pathans. Queen Roopmati thus set another example like queen Padmini and regains her lost kingdom. This story of Rani Roopmati of Kaithun will always be remembered for the valiant effort she made for the cause of freedom.

DR. DO-DIDDILY AND THE DEE-DOT'S TESTIMONY Dharma and Adharma were two friends. They had qualities befitting their names. Dharma was a pious and virtuous man. Adharma was a corrupt and dishonest person. As people judge others by themselves Dharma was under the impression that Adharma was an honest gentleman. Adharma thinking about his future realized that he was a poor, uneducated and dull witted person and so did not have much scope of earning a decent livelihood at the place where he lived. He thought that if he could make enough money he will not have to bother about his future. For this he needed to go to a town closely, as opportunities were more there. He however did not have confidence of his own to do it alone and so told his friend Dharma about his idea. Dharma as usual, ready to help his friend, agreed. The two friends went to aneighbouring town. They lived there for a few years and made fortune. When they thought that they had enough wealth they decided to return home. On their way they passed through a forest. Adharma said, "Dharma, let us bury half our wealth in this forest. Whenever we need it we will come here and take it." Dharma agreed and both friends buried half of their wealth under a baniyan tree in that forest. They put a cross sign on the tree and proceeded on their homeward journey. After a few weeks, Adharma came to Dharma's house and said, "Friend, I have a big family to support. All my money is finished. Let us go to the forest and bring the money buried there." So Dharma and Adharma went to the forest. They dug deep at the earmarked spot but did not find their money. Adharma annoyed and angry accused Dharma of stealing the money. Dharma tried to convince his friend of his innocence but Adharma refused to believe him. He dragged Dharma to court to get justice. He narrated his story to the Kazi. Adharma said, "Your Honor, the Goddess of the baniyan tree is my witness." The Kazi, a wise man, said all right let us all go to the baniyan tree under which you had buried you money. I want to hear the Goddess of the tree testify for Adharma." Adharma had a trick up his sleeve as he had earlier told his father to hide himself in the big hollow of the baniyan tree and testify that Dharma had stolen all the money buried there. Like like son like father, he liked the idea of his son and agreed to do, as his son wanted him to do. He had gone there early and hidden himself in his designated place. After some time Dharma, Adharma, the Kazi and his guards entered the forested and came near the tree. The Kazi addressing the tree said, "O goddess of the tree, please help us find out the culprit." Adharma's father spoke up from the hollow of the tree, " O Kazi! Dharma has stolen all the money. He is the thief." The Kazi surprised at the talking of the tree, called his guards and asked them to collect some firewood and light a small fire near the trunk of the tree. When the fire was lit the smoke entered the hollow where Adharma's father was hiding, forcing him to come out with red eyes coughing and sneezing. He fell at the feet of the Kazi and started apologizing for trying to cheat the court. He then narrated the truth to the Kazi. Adharma and his accomplice father were arrested on the orders of the Kazi and led away to prison

Dr. DooDiddily and her Dee Dot's Custom Search

The History Of The Taj Mahal In the 17th century, most of the country we now know as India was ruled by the Mughals, an Islamic people who were extremely powerful in the area for over 300 years. The Taj Mahal was built because of a love story! In 1607, Prince Khurrum of the Mughals, at the age of 14, fell in love with a 15 year girl and became engaged. The couple had to wait 5 years for their wedding day, but then had a long and very happy marriage. Prince Khurrum became Emperor in 1628 and was then known as Shah Jahan ("King of the World"), and his wife was known as Mumtaz Mahal ("Beloved Ornament of the Palace"). In 1631, Mumtaz Mahal died while giving birth to their 14th child. The grief-stricken Emperor ordered that a beautiful memorial to his wife should be built. The Emperor Shah Jahan and his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal Shah Jahan, although devoted to his wife, is known as a cruel leader, who killed his brothers to make sure that he became Emperor! Eventually, in 1657, he was overthrown by one of his sons, and he spent the last 9 years of life locked up in a tower overlooking the Taj Mahal.

Two ideas for Bengal Chutney this one from Sharwood Pan Fried Cod withBengal Spice Mango Chutney Succulent pieces of cod served on a bed of baby spinach leaves, drizzled with warmed Bengal Spice Mango Chutney Preparation Time: 5 minutes Cooking Time: 7 minutes Serves: 2 Shopping list 1 Tbsp vegetable oil 2 portions thick cod loin 100g baby spinach leaves 3 Tbsp Sharwood's Bengal Spice Mango Chutney 1 Tbsp lemon juice Cooking Method Pan fry the fish in the oil for 2-3 minutes each side or until the fish is just cooked. Meanwhile cook the spinach leaves until just softened, the microwave gives perfect results, arrange on a warmed serving dish. Arrange the cooked fish on the spinach leaves. Add the chutney and lemon juice to the pan, heat through and drizzle over the fish, serve immediately. Chutney is a term for a variety of sweet and spicy condiments, usually involving a fresh, chopped primary vegetable or fruit with added seasonings. Second Recipe Ingredients 1lb Demerara sugar. ½lb stoned raisins. ½ teasp. salt. 3 pints vinegar. 2 zs mustard seed ¼ lb garlic. (decloved and skinned) 2 ozs ground ginger ¼ lb onions (skinned) ½ oz cayenne pepper. 15 large sour apples (cookers) ¼ oz of hot chilli powder, depending on how hot you want it. Bake the apples down to a pulp, (finely peeled and cored first) Boil the onions until tender in a little water. Cover garlic with water and bring to the boil in a small pan, remove from heat and skim; then, along with the raisins, sugar, vinegar, spices, salt and cayenne pepper, place into a preserving-pan, with the apples, garlic and onions and boil for ¼ hour. Put into warm, bone-dry jars and seal with jam pot covers. This chutney if kept in a cool, dry place will keep for 2 or even 3 years. The longer it's kept the more delicious it becomes, but if you want to eat it today, well thats okay as well.

Mother Teresa About 20 years before India gained its freedom, Christian missionaries from Yugoslavia came to India to render humanitarian services. They were extremely affected by the conditions of poverty rampant in India and so invited people from their country to serve here. Amongst these was a special girl called Agnes Goxa Bojaxiu, who is today known as Mother Teresa. Arrival In India Agnes was born on August 27, 1910 and was just 19 years when she came to Calcutta on January 6, 1929. And she never left this country. Her aim in life was to serve the sick and the poor and she dedicated her full life towards this purpose. She would roam the dangerous dark and dirty streets of Calcutta at night, covering the cold and offering food and shelter to the poor. When she first arrived in Calcutta, she had just Rs. 5.00, and was helped by a priest. She lived in a small room for 9 years, where she nursed the ill back to health. Compassion, dignity and sympathy marked her every action. Mission Of Charity Through her efforts she managed to open several institutions to help the downtrodden e.g. 'Missionaries of Charity', ' Nirmal Hriday', and 'Shishu Bhavan' whish houses the mentally and physically challenged children. Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 and the Bharat Ratna in 1980. Besides these she also received the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Peace (1972), Ramon Magsaysay Award (1962) and the Templeton Foundation Award (1973). As the Mother- General of the Missionaries of Charity, Mother Teresa has a thousand Missionary institutions working under her. Despite all the public acclaim, national and international honours, mother Teresa remained humble, kind and generous till the end. The Florence Nightingale of India passed away in September 1997. I am sure there could be nobody in the world who has been admired as much as the Angel of India, she gave so much of herself in helping the people who had so very little. But I have put a few pictures below with words that were spoken by another great man of India. Though sad I am sure they must both be, as they gaze down from the heavens and see the beauty that could have been, is still not within the boundaries of this beautiful country. * * * * * * * * * * * * * Reeshav Chatterjee 12 years old - India "Mother is ready to do anything for the happiness of mankind" "Mother Teresa was the true Mother of the world. She was an angel sent by God to serve the poor, who believed in the policy of love and care. I feel that nobody can exceed her qualities. For that I admire her more than anyone else. If she can care for the poor she can even skate for happiness of mankind!"